Styrofoam And An Eco-Friendly Alternative

Dear Reader,

How many of you out there knew that styrofoam is a petroleum-derived product? I'll be honest: I didn't. But most of us who use consumer electronics would know what styrofoam is: it's that spongy, white, substance, formed into small globes, and further compressed together to form protective layers in packaging consumer electronics. It certainly helps reduce the damage to the electronic item in question, for example whenever there is a bump or the box falls on the ground.

What is Styrofoam?

From Wikipedia, we learn that styrofoam can refer to two things:

1. Extruded polystyrene foam. In fact, the word "Styrofoam" was first used as a trademark by the Dow Chemical Company for extruded foamed polystyrene, used in thermal insulation and craft applications. Foamed polystyrene is moisture resistant and is used in building materials.
2. Expanded polystyrene foam, in which case "styrofoam" has become a generic word to refer to moulded packaging material made of polystyrene beads. Apparently "EPS", as it is known, has been used to insulate concrete structures.

Discerning readers can read about the history of polystyrene here.

Some of the Issues

Some issues surrounding polystyrene seem to be:

1. non-biodegradability
2. recyclability
3. disposal
4. ingestion by animals and/or sea creatures
5. land and/or sea debris/pollution
6. depletion of ozone layer caused by production process
7. health risks (carcinogens, etc)
8. fire hazard / flammable
9. dissolved by solvents

The look of Styrofoam

For good measure, those who aren't certain what polystyrene looks like can take a look at these links:

1. Wikipedia - a picture of expanded polystyrene packaging
2. Wikipedia - polystyrene packaging
3. TreeHugger - polystyrene packgaging for food.
4. Packaging Probe - Nissin noodles polystyrene cup packaging
5. Zero Garbage Challenge - a picture of a rubbish dump, which (among others) includes polystyrene packaging
6. Earth911 - "packing peanuts", or uniform, small pieces of EPS used in packaging (you can also google for "loose fill packaging")
7. ThosmasNet news - polystyrene cups and bowls.
8. Greenwich Village School Parent-Teacher Association - polystyrene food trays.
9. Seven Shore News blog - pictures of a styrofoam cup and a paper cup after 50 days in an aquarium.
10. Squidoo - "The Great Pacific Garbage Patch", described as "an area in the north Pacific Ocean, estimated to be roughly twice the size of Texas, filled with all kinds of plastic debris".

Styro in the news

Starting 1st June 2007, San Francisco required "food vendors who sell prepared food to use compostable or recyclable to-go containers". (Source: TreeHugger, April 13th, 2007. San Francisco Bans Styrofoam for To-Go Containers) In March 2006, LiveScience reported that the United States produces more than 3 tonnes of polystyrene waste annually. (Source: LiveScience, March 7th, 2006. Immortal Polystyrene Foam Meets Its Enemy) The same article also stated that pseudomonas putida, a soil bacteria, had been discovered, which could be used to recycle polystyrene into a biodegradeable plastic known as PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates).

In August 2008, Ecology Global Network, a news service of Ecology Radio and Ecology TV, reported that:

• Ten per cent (10%) of the world's plastic waste ends up in the Pacific Ocean.
• Over 1,000,000 seabirds and over 100,000 sea mammals die every year from eating plastic waste.
• Plastic lighters, plastic bottle caps and plastic bags have been found in the stomachs of dead sea birds. 
• Researchers estimate there are 6 kgs of plastic waste for every 1 kg of plankton in the Pacific Ocean.
• Plastic waste is a "toxic sponge" and attracts "persistent organic pollutants (POPs), hydrocarbons and DDT".
• Dutch researchers estimate that 70% of plastic waste ends up on the ocean floor.
• Dutch researchers estimate about 600 tonnes of plastic waste presently on the ocean floor.

(Source: Ecology Global Network, August 14, 2008. Pacific Ocean Plastic Waste Dump. Found via ZDNet blog GreenTech Pastures, March 3rd 2009. Green crusaders to cross Pacific in a plastic bottle)

Plastic (and Styrofoam) is Biodegradable and TOXIC!

In August 2009, National Geographic reported that a recent discovery showed that plastics break down quickly in the ocean, posing health risks to oceanic life and the beings that eat them (essentially, mankind). It was found that polystyrene disintegrates at 30 degrees Celcius (86 degrees Farenheit) in the sea. (Source: National Geographic, August 20th 2009. Plastic Breaks Down In Ocean, After All -- And Fast, by Carolyn Barry. Found via ZDNet blog GreenTech Pastures, August 27th 2009. Plastic floats forever? Maybe not. By Harry Fuller.) It was also noted in the said report, that:

1. This breakdown of plastic would likely be taking place in tropical and subtropical regions
2. Sea water was found to contain poly trimer (by-product of styrofoam that is a suspected carcinogen) and Bisphenol A (BPA - used in hard plastics and suspected to affect reproductive systems)
3. Broken down styrofoam sinks, and is likely to pollute (or have polluted) the entire column of ocean water (and not just the surface).
4. Plastics are likely to absorb chemicals from the surface before sinking beneath the surface, and are therefore "toxic sponges". 

This is an urgent and important finding, and governments around the world should take notice. In the long run, will dumping plastic waste (and styrofoam) into the oceans pollute the seas, or poison the seas? It seems that it's a little bit of both.

3R - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Here are some ideas that you can use to reduce, reuse and recycle styrofoam / polystyrene.

1. Make robots - Kevin Kelly, a self-styled "geek dad", made a Styrobot out of the styrofoam packaging that had accumulated at his house for five years. (It looks like Optimus Prime from Transformers). He was inspired by Michael Salter, an associate professor of digital arts at University of Oregon.
2. Create tote bags - Alabama-based company EarthChich has found a way to turn plastic into fibers, which can in turn be woven into tote bags, among the many other possibilities. (Source: Life Goggles, April 9th 2008. Earthchich Reusable Tote Eco Product Review)
3. Create props for hotels and/or malls - In 1999, Cairo weekly Al-Ahram reported that Hilton Fayrouz Resort and Hilton Sharm Dreams would hold a "Lawrence of Arabia" themed event for guests on New Years' Eve. The decor was styled after the movie and included "old burnt-out jeeps, trees and British and Arab troops all made of Styrofoam". (Source: Al-Ahram, Issue No. 457. Nov 25th to Dec 1st 1999 edition. Where to go on 31 December, by Rehab Saad.)
4. Disguise yourself - In 2003, Cairo weekly Al-Ahram reported that Saddam Hussein was found "hiding in a Styrofoam-covered underground hide-out." (Source: Al-Ahram, Issue No. 669. Dec 18th to 24th 2003 edition. Remains of history, by Salah Hameid.)
5. Melt your styrofoam - Consider purchasing the "StyroMelt", which its manufacturers claim "melts polystyrene (styrofoam) to form a dense block of material that is reduced in volume by over 95% of the original material. So a 2 cubic metre load of polystyrene comes out of the machine as a small block approximately 90cm x 25cm x 5cm. The block can be stored then sold to recycling companies who then turn it into fuels such as diesel or new products such as garden furniture." Sounds eco-friendly.
6. Make artistic packaging ala Apple - See this post by ZDNet blogger Jason D. O'Grady. (Ref: ZDNet: The Apple Core, February 20th 2006. Exclusive: MacBook Pro unboxing pics.)

Manufacturers Get In 

What can businesses, corporations and manufacturers do about styrofoam pollution? The business sector and governments alike must recognise that most, if not all, styrofoam comes from the production of building materials, packaging materials, cup/plate/tray replacements, and other such products and by-products of the manufacturing industry. In fact, most articles produced using styrofoam are complementary to some other product, such as: food, consumer electronics, building materials, construction, et cetera. which in fact come from a variety of industries.

Consider, for example:

1. Sony Corporation is using limonene (an extract of the orange fruit) to treat its foam packaging. Limonene, when sprayed on styrofoam, will reduce the styrofoam into a "a viscous gel that can be used as super glue". (Source: Squidoo, Styrofoam Recycling.) 
2. The Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers is encouraging the recycling of EPS, and will accept EPS packaging from members of the public for recycling. (Source: Squidoo, ibid.) 
3. Starbucks, Seattle's Best Coffee and a number of other "enlightened" cafes have taken to giving discounts to customers who bring their own coffee mug. (Source: Squidoo, ibid.)
4. Styrofoam reacts with acetone (a kind of solvent), disintegrating the styrofoam to its "strands of styrene molecules". It does not disappear entirely, but becomes reduced in volume. (Source: Steven Spangler Science, Vanishing Styrofoam. Accessed October 22nd 2009.) From another science enthusiast website: "When styrofoam is placed in acetone, the long polymer strands are dissolved, releasing the trapped air and causing the structure to disintegrate. However, the insoluble crosslinked parts of the polymer keep the polystyrene from dissolving entirely, in much the same way as buoys on nets keep the entire net from sinking to the bottom of a lake. Once the acetone evaporates, you are left with a hard crosslinked polystyrene residue." (Source: Cardhouse.com, Please Pass The Science - Styrofoam by Scott Berk. Accessed: October 22nd 2009)
5. The Solid Waste Services of Austin, Texas suggests donating Styrofoam peanuts to Mail Boxes Etc., or a similar store, for reuse. (Source: Austin City Connection, Solid Waste Services: How Do I Dispose Of Directory -- "S". Accessed: October 22nd, 2009)
6. Recycling Expanded Polystyrene Australia (REPSA), a division of the Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association (PACIA) states on its home page: "In 2006/2007 approximately 33,000 tonnes of EPS was manufactured in Australia. During the same period over 800 tonnes of EPS was collected and recycled at EPS Collection Centres across Australia."
7. A European Union directive requires member states to recycle at least 55 per cent of their packaging waste. (Source: Montreal Gazette. Now and forever: The Styrofoam dilemma. By Catherine Solyom. Found via Clean Seas Coalition, March 6th 2009. The Styrofoam Dilemma.)
8. Polystyrene has instead been banned in about 30 municipalities in California. (Source: Montreal Gazette, ibid.)
9. In October 2008, Walmart Canada, started a program to have Styrofoam packaging at eight stores in Ontario collected and recycled by Grace Canada (described on its website as a "premier global specialty chemicals and materials company"), which turns it into construction materials. (Source: Montreal Gazette, ibid.)
10. Following the lead of the European Union directive, the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea has implemented the Extended Producer Responsibility System (EPRS). The EPR was first mooted in Germany and adopted in many countries, e.g. Sweden, Switzerland, Netherlands, Taiwan, etc. A description of the Korean EPR is available on the website: "In Korea, under this system, the government sets the amount of waste that must be recycled by each producer, after taking into account the collection of recyclable resources and other recycling conditions, where the producers must reach their recycling target. The total mandatory recycling amount of a recyclable item is multiplied by the ratio of a business in the total production of the item to produce the mandatory recycling amounts by business. The manufacturers will collect and recycle their products after consumers use and discard them, or pay for the full cost needed for recycling. The original aim is not only to promote recycling, but also force manufacturers to improve product design so that waste generation is minimized and recycling becomes easier." (Source: Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea, The Extended Producer Responsibility System (EPRS). Accessed October 22nd, 2009)

Eco-Friendly Alternative To Styrofoam?

In May 2009, Popular Science magazine awarded their PopSci Invention Awards. One of the recipients of the award were Eben Bayer and Gavin MacIntyre, who have invented an eco-friendly alternative to styrofoam. Their invention, dubbed "Greensulate", is an insulation material made of mycelia, the roots of mushrooms. Here is an extract from the Popular Science article:

In the lab, the inventors grow mycelia, the vegetative roots of mushrooms that resemble bundles of white fiber. But instead of soil, the roots grow in a bed of agricultural by-products like buckwheat husks, and those intertwining fibers give the material structural support. The mixture is placed inside a panel (or whatever shape is required) and, after 10 to 14 days, the mycelia develop a dense network — just one cubic inch of the white-and-brown-specked "Greensulate" insulation contains eight miles of interconnected mycelia strands. The panels are dried in an oven at between 100° and 150°F to stop mycelia growth, and at the end of two weeks, they're ready for your walls.

(Source: Popular Science, May 26th 2009. Invention Awards: Eco-Friendly Insulation Made From Mushrooms. Found via Good magazine, October 22nd 2009. Pop!Tech 09: Way Better Than Styrofoam.)

The founders have formed a company, Ecovative Design, to market the product. ("Ecovative" is a play on the word "evocative".) The benefits of "Greensulate" as Ecovative Design claims on its website are:

1. All-natural product.
2. Cuts heating/cooling bills.
3. Strong and rigid.
4. Class 1 fire rating.
5. Safe to touch.
6. No spores or allergy concerns.
7. Withstands mold growth.
8. Does not absorb water.
9. Does not transmit vapour.
10. Energy efficient.
11. Free from chemicals and VOC (volatile organic compound).
12. Manufacturing uses less energy compared to styrofoam.

Ecovative Design also markets the same product for product packaging under the trade name "EcoCradle". Some of the benefits of "EcoCradle" as found on the official website:

1. Can be recycled as mulch in the garden.
2. Can be composted (anaerobically compostable).
3. Will decompose in a landfill in a short time.
4. Can be reused for packaging or insulation.
5. Grown using agricultural byproducts.
6. Production and price not linked to petroleum.
7. Is a complete replacement for styrofoam.
8. Energy efficient production.
9. Comparably low heat / pressure / petroleum usage in production.

Malaysia Compared

Here is a list of some things the Malaysian government has done in regard to styrofoam:

1. The Department of Environment, set up under the Ministry of  Natural Resources and Environment, has come up with a booklet called Buku Amalam Mesra Alam, which advises you on environmentally friendly habits. The book is bi-lingual, in English and Malay. Download it in PDF here.
2. The Housing and Local Government Ministry (KPKT) in collaboration with Local Agenda 21 (LA 21 - Launched by the United Nations at the seminal Rio Earth Summit in 1992) encourages Malaysians to use their own tiffin carriers to avoid using styrofoam packaging. (Food hawkers seem to use styrofoam packaging nowadays, so perhaps this campaign has been forgotten.) (Ref: KPKT, Every bit helps. Accessed October 22nd 2009)
3. Between 18th to 20th April 2008, the Department of Marine Park Malaysia in collaboration with Coral Malaysia, ReefCheck, Malaysian Nature Society and Tioman Dive Center launched a "Say NO To Styrofoam" Campaign at Pulau Tioman. (Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysian Parks Newsletter Issue #1/08, March 2008 edition. Accessed: October 22nd, 2009)(Also refer to: Department of Marine Park Malaysia, Calendar Activities.)
4. Dr Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed, a Fellow Kanan from IKIM (Institut Kefahaman Islam Malaysia), writing in The New Straits Times in 2001, cited findings of the UN-sponsored Global Environmental Outlook 2008 and the alarming rate of the CFC's polluting the atmosphere. He said that Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed around 1990 by many countries, had not been effective. He also cited the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which had not been implemented by many countries. (Source: IKIM, April 21st 2001. Act now to save the environment. By Dr Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed.)
5. The Department of Environment, in collaboration with Environmental Protection Society Malaysia (EPSM) launched the SLiM Challenge 2007. (SLiM stood for "Sustainable Living in Malaysia".) One of the challenges was "Say NO to styrofoam boxes and plastic bags". (Source: Department of Environment, Malaysia. IMPAK : Quarterly DOE Update on Environment, Development & Sustainability. Issue 3 / 2007.)
6. Earlier this year, Masidi Manjun, Sabah State Environment Minister was reported to have said in his Earth Day speech, that styrofoam packaging for take-away food is 'not only harm human health but also the health of the earth since it is "degradable only 500 years later."' He exhorted the audience to look for "new methods of doing things because actually there are alternatives". (Source: Sabah State Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Environment, April 22nd 2009. Masidi hopes SM Kolombong will be model on organic concept.)
7. On 8th January 2008, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) banned the use of styrofoam food packaging. 32 cafeteria operators were instructed to stop using styrofoam food packaging. (Ref: The Star Online, January 8th 2008. USM bans use of "white coffins".) On 22nd January 2008 USM was reported to have extended the campaign to its two branch campuses. (Ref: The Star Online, January 22nd 2008. USM extends polystyrene ban.) The campaign website can be accessed here. Click here for a description of other environmental campaigns launched by USM students in 2008. Tupperware was one of the sponsors of the "White Coffin" campaign.
8. The Department of Veterinary Services, Perak uses styrofoam boxes to store turtle eggs within two hours of being laid. They are then taken for incubation. (Source: Star Metro, May 19, 2005. Turtle conservation bid bearing fruit, by Sharon Ling.)
9. A March 2006 product study of plastics in Argentina, found at the MATRADE website, identifies "PS crystal is a polymer of monomer styrene, derived from petroleum" as a component used to manufacture styrofoam. (Source, accessed October 22nd 2009)
10. The Sibu local government's website shows an article from the Borneo Post that states: "Styrofoam takes 2,000 years to decompose." (Source: Sibu, The Official Website. March 15th 2008, Fight global warming through recycling.)
11. The Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre, in its 1995 Annual Report, stated that it was using styrofoam floats in its study "for the introduction of cage culture as a aquaculture industry in Lake Kenyir." (Source: FFRC, Annual Report 1995. Accessed: October 22nd 2009
12. The Department of Agriculture, Malaysia as part of Scheme Organic Malaysia has set certain "Standards & Certification Requirements For The Production of Plant-Based Organic Food Products". In relation to the packaging of food products, the DOA has prohibited the use of styrofoam unless no alternatives are available. (Source: DOA, Scheme Organic Malaysia. Accessed: October 22nd 2009)
13. In May 2008, Kementerian Perdagangan Dalam Negeri Dan Hal Ehwal Pengguna (KPDNHEP) in its monthly newsletter "Pengguna" advised its readers to avoid using styrofoam as it contains benzene, which is a carcinogen. (Source: KPDNHEP, Pengguna Newsletter. May 2008 edition.)
14. Info Ternak, apparently approved by the Perak state government, has an executive briefing for an ostrich breeding program, known as "Projek Ternakan Ostrich Pedaging". Styrofoam is used, and is charged RM0.12 sen per piece. 2,910 pieces are used, costing RM349.20 in total. (Source: Info Ternak, Projek Ternakan Ostrich Pedaging (PDF). Accessed: October 22nd, 2009.)
15. The Manjung District Department of Agriculture has guidelines for the farming of the pitaya fruit (a.k.a. "dragonfruit"). In its explanation, it advises would-be farmers that pitaya fruits which will sent to faraway destinations need to be wrapped in styrofoam. (Source: Laman Pejabat Pertanian Daerah Manjung, Panduan menanam buah pitaya /dragon fruit. Accessed October 22nd, 2009.)

Scrapping the Royalty-In-Kind Programme

First off, this particular post has nothing to do with Malaysia. It has everything to do with events in a foreign land. Having said that, the question becomes, what is the "Royalty In Kind" programme? Why does it attract any attention at all? The country in question is the United States of America, and we pay attention because it involves scandals with regards to petrol companies.

On 18th September 2009, The New Republic, an online news portal, blogged about the "Royalty In Kind" programme. Here is an excerpt:

On Wednesday, the Interior Department finally terminated a program few people had ever heard of: the royalty-in-kind (RIK) system, which allowed oil and gas companies to drill in public lands and pay the government in oil, rather than cash. Over the past decade, the program, run out of an office in suburban Denver, had allowed companies to underpay the government by $10 million. But that's not why it was shut down--the tale goes well beyond ordinary waste and abuse and into the delightfully tawdry realm of sex, drugs, and graft.

Onlookers knew that the RIK system was a bad idea from the start. In the mid-1990s, oil companies saw that the royalties they owed the government were rising alongside the price of oil, and proposed that they should just be allowed to pay the government in oil to "simplify" the process--even though the proposed system would require a new, multimillion-dollar office within the Minerals of Management Services (MMS). But Alaskan Senators Frank Murskowski and Don Young, themselves the recipients of oil industry largesse, liked the idea and pushed it through.

Just like that, the government had entered the oil and gas business, collecting commodities and selling them on the open market. Even though early trial runs showed that the Treasury was making less money this way than through the old way of simply taxing mining companies--in part because the government now had assumed the responsibility of managing and marketing a natural resource--the program kept growing, while whistleblower warnings and government reports were brushed aside. Eventually, 40 percent of all royalties for drilling rights were collected in-kind, with such weak auditing that investigators called it an "honor system."

Source: The New Republic, 18th September 2009. No More Sex and Drugs in the Interior Department.


It certainly makes for interesting reading. Of note is also the link to New York Times on the issue: The New York Times, 16th September 2009. Interior to Eliminate Royalty-In-Kind Program.

As for Malaysia, I believe that petrol companies here pay in Ringgit, the common language of Malaysian banks and the favourite currency of many in the region. Of note is this extract from Malaysian site Infernal Ramblings:

According to the 2006 budget — the relevant figures can be found at the Treasury website — RM20,106 million of government revenue alone came from direct and indirect taxes on petroleum. That's no small sum, considering that the total government revenue was about RM115,561 million.

That is far from all, however. The government attributes RM35,136 million of revenue to non-tax sources, but does not itemise these sources. It states in a footnote, however, that this income includes "government commercial undertakings" and "petroleum royalties/gas cash payments".

I have no sure way to estimate the amount of petroleum royalties, but according to Wikipedia, in 2004 Petronas contributed RM25,000 million in "dividends and other revenues" to the treasury. Conservatively estimating that RM30,000 million was contributed by Petronas in 2006 (the price of oil has gone up, after all), we arrive at a figure of at least RM50,106 million worth of revenue derived directly or indirectly from petroleum — and this does not even include royalties on petroleum!

Source: Infernal Ramblings, 24th March 2007. Bleeding Petrol: Malaysia On Life Support.

In the Malaysian Treasury's 2008 4th Quarter Quarterly Updates, it was reported that:

Non-tax revenue rose to RM46.9 billion (2007: RM44.7 billion), the bulk of which was attributed to higher dividend from Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS) and petroleum royalties.

Source: Malaysia Treasury, Quarterly Update on the Malaysian Economy – 4th Quarter 2008. Accessed: 12th October 2009.

It seems that our Malaysian government gains its royalties from oil companies in cash terms.

Static Electricity and Petrol Stations

In an earlier post, we looked at how filling a metal container on a vehicle (e.g. a truck) can lead to a build up of static electricity. The static electricity cannot be discharged when it is on the vehicle. As a result, a build up of static of electricity ensues. When another element is nearby, the static electricity build up may become discharged. It is common in the discharge of static electricity that a spark is formed. When a spark is in the vicinity of petrol vapours, the petrol vapours may become ignited.

Static electricity is an everyday occurrence. To understand the phenomena of static electricity, one should understand that atoms, the basic building blocks of the universe, are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are positively charged, and sit in the center of the atom with the neutrons, forming what is known as the "nucleus". Electrons orbit the nucleus. Electrons are negatively charged. When two objects come into contact, electrons may move from one object to another, leading to a charge building up. (Ref: ScienceMadeSimple.com, Static Electricity. Accessed: 8th October 2009)

Triboelectric Effect

Most sparks caused by the discharge of static electricity can be considered a direct outcome of the triboelectric effect. When two objects come into contact, electrons may flow from one object to another. The question is which object will be likely to lose its electrons, and which object will be likely to gain more electrons? The outcome will determine which object will become positively charged, and which object will become negatively charged. Scientists, working empirically by observation and deduction, have compiled the "triboelectric series" which rank, in a hierarchy, objects that will likely lose their electrons to other objects. A simple example of the "triboelectric series" is as below:

TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
your hand
glass
your hair
nylon
wool
fur
silk
paper
cotton
hard rubber
polyester
polyvinylchloride plastic
(Source: ScienceMadeSimple.com, Static Electricity. Accessed: 8th October 2009)

A more in-depth example is the following table. The following table was reproduced from the website of AlphaLab Inc, which produces electricity meters. (Ref: AlphaLab Inc., TriboElectric Series. Accessed: 8th October 2009.) These include static electricity meters.

Column 1 (this col.): Insulator name. Col.2: Charge affinity in nC/J (nano ampsec/wattsec of friction). Col.3: Charge acquired if rubbed with metal (W=weak, N=normal, or consistent with the affinity). Col.4: Notes.	Affinity nC/J	Metal effect	Triboelectric Table Tests were performed by Bill Lee (Ph.D., physics). ©2009 by AlphaLab, Inc. (TriField.com), which also manufactured the test equipment used. This table may be reproduced only if reproduced in whole.
Polyurethane foam	+60	+N	All materials are good insulators (>1000 T ohm cm) unless noted.
Sorbothane	+58	-W	Slightly conductive. (120 G ohm cm).
Box sealing tape (BOPP)	+55	+W	Non-sticky side. Becomes more negative if sanded down to the BOPP film.
Hair, oily skin	+45	+N	Skin is conductive. Cannot be charged by metal rubbing.
Solid polyurethane, filled	+40	+N	Slightly conductive. (8 T ohm cm).
Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)	+35	+N	Anti-reflective optical coating.
Nylon, dry skin	+30	+N	Skin is conductive. Cannot be charged by metal rubbing.
Machine oil	+29	+N
Nylatron (nylon filled with MoS2)	+28	+N
Glass (soda)	+25	+N	Slightly conductive. (Depends on humidity).
Paper (uncoated copy)	+10	-W	Most papers & cardboard have similar affinity. Slightly conductive.
Wood (pine)	+7	-W
GE brand Silicone II (hardens in air)	+6	+N	More positive than the other silicone chemistry (see below).
Cotton	+5	+N	Slightly conductive. (Depends on humidity).
Nitrile rubber	+3	-W
Wool	0	-W
Polycarbonate	-5	-W
ABS	-5	-N
Acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) and adhesive side of clear carton-sealing and office tape	-10	-N	Several clear tape adhesives are have an affinity almost identical to acrylic, even though various compositions are listed.
Epoxy (circuit board)	-32	-N
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR, Buna S)	-35	-N	Sometimes inaccurately called "neoprene" (see below).
Solvent-based spray paints	-38	-N	May vary.
PET (mylar) cloth	-40	-W
PET (mylar) solid	-40	+W
EVA rubber for gaskets, filled	-55	-N	Slightly conductive. (10 T ohm cm). Filled rubber will usually conduct.
Gum rubber	-60	-N	Barely conductive. (500 T ohm cm).
Hot melt glue	-62	-N
Polystyrene	-70	-N
Silicones (air harden & thermoset, but not GE)	-72	-N
Vinyl: flexible (clear tubing)	-75	-N
Carton-sealing tape (BOPP), sanded down	-85	-N	Raw surface is very + (see above), but close to PP when sanded.
Olefins (alkenes): LDPE, HDPE, PP	-90	-N	UHMWPE is below. Against metals, PP is more neg than PE.
Cellulose nitrate	-93	-N
Office tape backing (vinyl copolymer ?)	-95	-N
UHMWPE	-95	-N
Neoprene (polychloroprene, not SBR)	-98	-N	Slightly conductive if filled (1.5 T ohm cm).
PVC (rigid vinyl)	-100	-N
Latex (natural) rubber	-105	-N
Viton, filled	-117	-N	Slightly conductive. (40 T ohm cm).
Epichlorohydrin rubber, filled	-118	-N	Slightly conductive. (250 G ohm cm).
Santoprene rubber	-120	-N
Hypalon rubber, filled	-130	-N	Slightly conductive. (30 T ohm cm).
Butyl rubber, filled	-135	-N	Conductive. (900 M ohm cm). Test was done fast.
EDPM rubber, filled	-140	-N	Slightly conductive. (40 T ohm cm).
Teflon	-190	-N	Surface is  fluorine atoms-- very electronegative.

Dear Reader,

You may now be wondering: What in the world can this table be used for? From the website of AlphaLab Inc:

This table can be used to select materials that will minimize static charging. For example, if uncoated paper (with a positive charge affinity value of +10 nC/J) is squeezed by a pinch roller made of butyl rubber (@-135 nC/J), there will be about 145 pico coulombs of charge transfer per joule of energy (associated with pinch and friction). This is about 20 times more than 7 nC/J, which is the static charge per joule that results from squeezing paper with a roller made of nitrile rubber (@+3 nC/J). In general, materials with an affinity near zero (e.g. cotton, nitrile rubber, polycarbonate, ABS) will not charge much when rubbed against metals or against each other.

In short, you can use it to design your products, packaging, etc. to prevent (as much as possible) build up of static electricity.

From Wikipedia's entry on the Triboelectric Effect:

The triboelectric effect is related to friction only because they both involve adhesion. However, the effect is greatly enhanced by rubbing the materials together, as they touch and separate many times. ...

Because the surface of the material is now electrically charged, either negatively or positively, any contact with an uncharged conductive object or with an object having substantially different charge may cause an electrical discharge of the built-up static electricity; a spark. ... Low relative humidity in the ambient air increases the voltage at which electrical discharge occurs by increasing the ability of the insulating material to hold charge and by decreasing the conductivity of the air, making it difficult for the charge build-up to dissipate gradually. ... car travel can lead to a build-up of charge on the metal car body (which acts as a Faraday cage). When the driver alights, sparks jump from frame to driver as he makes contact with the ground.

In other words, the very act of travelling in your car can cause the car to become electrically charged! Also, very interestingly, you may also note that humidity does play a role in determining the voltage at which discharge of static electricity occurs.

Countering Static Electricity

Mist Fans!

Those readers who have stepped on a treadmill at their local gym may have experienced a shock from static electricity build-up. In most cases, you would notice that the treadmill is grounded. However, static electricity build-up can still occur because the tread (which which is made of non-conductive material) can act as an insulator and can prevent discharge of static electricity. In one forum discussion, it was suggested that "spraying a mist of water" could help to discharge the static electricity build-up. (Ref: PhysicsForums.com, 25th December 2006. How can static electricity shocks from treadmill be prevented?)

It seems that the above suggestion may be of valid consideration. One manufacturer of mist fans in Shanghai, China, is marketing a "high pressure misting fan" which, among others, claims to "prevent static electricity". (Ref: Shanghai Airequip Engineering Co Ltd, High Pressure Misting Fan. Accessed: 8th October 2009.) Perhaps in the future, petrol stations would be well advised to install mist fans to prevent static electricity. Not only would these mist fans reduce static electricity, customers would also benefit from the added cool during hot afternoons, and the mist also traps dust particles in the air (hence, the air becomes less dusty).

Making Surfaces Slightly Conductive

As build-up of static electricity causes a discharge when the charged object touches another object, the important issue is how much charge is discharged. If the build-up of static electricity carries on for some time, naturally the build-up will be more. The electricity discharged will also be more, and thus more likely to cause a spark. Hence, one strategy would be to render more surfaces conductive, or slightly conductive. Material used to coat surfaces to render them conductive, or slightly conductive, is known as antistatic agent. (Ref: Wikipedia, Antistatic Agent. Accessed: 8th October 2009)

This particular suggestion is not quite useful. Perhaps it would be helpful if petrol stations were to sport a little signboard next to each petrol pump, stating: "TOUCH YOuR HAND HERE TO DISCHARGE YOUR STATIC ELECTRICITY". Such a signboard would, of course, need to be (a) conductive. and (b) grounded. So far, I have yet to see any such signboards. Another possible innovation may even be a "grounding clip" which can be attached to a vehicle, to discharge any static electricity build-up. Such a practice (grounding) would be common when airplanes are being filled with fuel, but not so for the ordinary petrol station which serves motorists. (Ref: Alaska Division of Forestry, Aviation Fueling Handbook. URL: http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/doc/aviation-fueling.pdf. Accessed: 8th October 2009) (Ref also: Experimental Aircraft Info, Aircraft Refueling Safety, Grounding and Test Procedures. URL: http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/homebuilt-aircraft/aircraft-refueling.php. Accessed: 8th October 2009.)

Adding Antistatic Agents To Fuels

From the Wikipedia article on Antistatic Agents:

Antistatic agents are also added to some military jet fuels, to impart electrical conductivity to them and avoid buildup of static charge that could lead to sparking igniting the fuel vapors. Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as the active ingredient, is the agent added to some distillate fuels, solvents, commercial jet fuels, and to the military JP-8 Stadis 425 is a similar compound, for use in distillate fuels and solvents.

Naturally, very few civilians use military jet fuels. Some rich tycoons, like a certain Mr Tiong from Sarawak, manage to own private jets. (Ref: The Star Online, 6th October 2009. Police freeze Tiong's jet and properties pending investigations.) But since the majority of Malaysians use cars, and motorcycles, it would be logical to request petrol companies to include antistatic agents in the formulation of petrol which is dispensed at the filling pump. However, in one engineering forum, it was stated that antistatic additives in fuel tend to reduce the effectiveness of the fuel. (Ref: Eng-Tips Forums, 24th Feb 2009. Standard Petrol - Anti Static Additives Or Just Rely On Earthing?)

Grounding And Bonding vs Static Grounding

These are actually two different things. From a blog by Newson Gale, comes this explanation:

1. What is Grounding and Bonding

Grounding & Bonding is a combination of Grounding and Bonding techniques. Bonding is the process of connecting two or more conductive objects together by means of a conductor so that they are at the same electrical potential, but not necessarily at the same potential as the earth. On the other hand, Grounding describes the process of bonding one or more conductive objects to the ground, so that all objects are at zero (0) electrical potential.

2. What is Static Grounding

Static Grounding is the process of bonding one or more conductive objects to the ground, so that all objects are at zero (0) electrical potential, to prevent static build up. In order to secure hazardous areas Static Grounding Systems use explosion protection and intrinsically safe techniques to monitor acceptable resistance to ground and provide verification and interlocks.Static Grounding and Grounding and Bonding.)

Further Reading

Readers are advised to look at AlphaLabs Inc's page on static electricity problems and their fixes. It discusses, among others,

1. Removing or avoiding charge on materials.
2. Attraction/repulsion--unintended static forces (e.g., contamination) and intended forces (pinning).
3. Electrostatic spray painting, powder deposition.
4. Surface conductivity-- measuring "ohms per square", and making surfaces more conductive.

Explosions at Petrol Stations

If you ever look at the warning plaque which is mounted on the wall, next to many petrol pumps, you would notice that there are warnings about: (a) mobile phones and electronic devices; (b) static electricity; (c) no smoking; (d) turning off the engine; (e) filling portable containers in the ground; and (f) not removing the nozzle if a fire starts. That last warning about a fire starting, should have been a clue as to why we need to heed these warnings. Here is a picture of an example warning plaque:



There are some people who think that you should not re-enter the vehicle while filling up on petrol. Here is a video of one such incident where a woman re-entered her car while filling up (at 0:45). Observe how the pump caught fire when she touched it (at 1:03).



In another incident, a Shell truck carrying petrol caught fire when one of its staff decided to illuminate a portion with his mobile phone. (Observe at 1:22)



Both these videos are undated and can be found on YouTube, the video-sharing site owned by Google. One video, however, had a date and a story attached to it. In March 2008, a man was filling up a metal can with petrol when it caught fire. The metal can sat on the truck. The continuous flow of petrol into the metal can led to a build up of static electricity. At the same time, that static electricity could not be discharged, because the can was not on the ground. Again, the portable container (used to contain the petrol) was not on the ground. The continuous build up of static electricity led to a spark, which ignited the vapour fumes. (Start watching at 1:00)



That incident took place in Louisiana, USA. (Ref: The Town Talk, 3rd March 2008. Static Electricity Blamed For Fire At Gasoline Pump At Alexandria). The original story is no longer online, but it has been included in a newsletter by the Steel Tank Institute. (Ref: The Steel Tank Institute, Tank and Petrol Pump Mishaps. Accessed 7th October 2009.)

I hope to explore this topic more in-depth in the near future.

In the meantime, OPEC's basket price of crude oil is USD68.14 per barrel, as of 6th October 2009. Crude oil prices are expected to remain at USD60 to USD80 per barrel for the remainder of this year. (Ref: AFP, 7th October 2009. Kuwait sees steady oil output, price.) The same report states that the OPEC decision to cut output last year has led to Russia overtaking Saudi Arabia as the world's largest producer of oil. In August, Russia's production was 10 million barrels per day, while Saudi Arabia's production stood at 8.1 million barrels per day. At the NYMEX, light sweet crude oil for November 2009 delivery is opened at a low of USD69.80 per barrel today and most recently settled at USD69.57.